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Apr 13, 2023
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Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic can be an economic shock for low-income households. Several studies have shown that child labor is a strategy used by households to cope with economic shocks. This shock will exacerbate the phenomenon of child labor. Social protection is a form of mitigating the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic which is considered able to reduce the number of child labor. Program Keluarga Harapan (PKH) is one of the social protection programs in Indonesia. This study investigates the impact of Program Keluarga Harapan (PKH) on the phenomenon of child labor during the COVID-19 pandemic. To overcome the problem of self-selection, this study applies the variable of interest as an endogenous variable. By using the recursive bivariate probit method, this study concludes that PKH has no impact on reducing the likelihood of a child becoming child labor during the COVID-19 pandemic. To enrich the research, we also investigated the influence of PKH on the phenomenon of child labor in the period before the COVID-19 pandemic and found that PKH had an impact on reducing the likelihood of a child becoming child labor in the period before the COVID-19 pandemic. Several factors that influence the phenomenon of child labor, such as the characteristics of children, the characteristics of the head of the household, household characteristics, and environmental characteristics, have been shown to influence a child's tendency to become child labor, both in both periods (before the pandemic or during the COVID-19 pandemic) and in only one period.
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
Ibrahim, M. M., & Wisana, I. D. G. K. (2023). Apakah Program Keluarga Harapan Mampu Mengurangi Pekerja Anak di Masa Pandemi COVID-19?. Jurnal Ekonomi Dan Statistik Indonesia, 3(1), 37-52. https://doi.org/10.11594/jesi.03.01.04
References
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Amin, S., Quayes, M. S., & Rives, J. M. (2004). Poverty and Other Determinants of Child Labor in Bangladesh. Southern Economic Journal, 70(4), 876–892. https://doi.org/10.2307/4135277
Angrist, J. D. (2001). Estimation of limited dependent variable models with dummy endogenous regressors: Simple strategies for empirical practice. Journal of Business and Economic Statistics, 19(1), 2–28. https://doi.org/10.1198/07350010152472571
Attanasio, O., Fitzsimons, E., Gomez, A., Meghir, C., Mesnard, A., & GutiéRrez, M. I. (2010). Children’s schooling and work in the presence of a conditional cash transfer program in rural Colombia. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 58(2), 181–210. https://doi.org/10.1086/648188
Badan Pusat Statistik. (2020). Berita Resmi Statisik: Keadaan Ketenagakerjaan Indonesia Agustus 2020. https://www.bps.go.id/pressrelease/2020/11/05/1673/-revisi-per-18-02-2021--agustus-2020--tingkat-pengangguran-terbuka--tpt--sebesar-7-07-persen.html
Bakrania, S., Chavez, C., Ipince, A., Rocca, M., Oliver, S., Stansfield, C., & Subrahmanian, R. (2020). Impacts of Pandemics and Epidemics on Child Protection: Lessons learned from a rapid review in the context of COVID-19. Innocenti Working Paper, 2020–05(July 2020). https://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/WP-2020-05-Working-Paper-Impacts-Pandemics-Child-Protection.pdf
Beegle, K., Dehejia, R. H., & Gatti, R. (2006). Child labor and agricultural shocks. Journal of Development Economics, 81(1), 80–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2005.05.003
Christofides, L. N., Stengos, T., & Swidinsky, R. (1997). On the calculation of marginal effects in the bivariate probit model. Economics Letters, 54(3), 203–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-1765(97)00025-6
Dammert, A. C., de Hoop, J., Mvukiyehe, E., & Rosati, F. C. (2018). Effects of public policy on child labor: Current knowledge, gaps, and implications for program design. World Development, 110, 104–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.05.001
de Janvry, A., Finan, F., Sadoulet, E., & Vakis, R. (2006). Can conditional cash transfer programs serve as safety nets in keeping children at school and from working when exposed to shocks? Journal of Development Economics, 79(2), 349–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2006.01.013
De Silva, I., & Sumarto, S. (2015). How do Educational Transfers Affect Child Labour Supply and Expenditures? Evidence from Indonesia of Impact and Flypaper Effects. Oxford Development Studies, 43(4), 483–507. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600818.2015.1032232
Del Carpio, X. V., Loayza, N. V., & Wada, T. (2016). The Impact of Conditional Cash Transfers on the Amount and Type of Child Labor. World Development, 80, 33–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.11.013
Duryea, S., Lam, D., & Levison, D. (2007). Effects of economic shocks on children’s employment and schooling in Brazil. Journal of Development Economics, 84(1), 188–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2006.11.004
Edmonds, E. V., & Schady, N. (2012). Poverty alleviation and child labor. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 4(4), 100–124. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.4.4.100
Edwards, L. N., Hasebe, T., & Sakai, T. (2019). Education and marriage decisions of japanese women and the role of the equal employment opportunity act. Journal of Human Capital, 13(2), 260–292. https://doi.org/10.1086/702924
Galiani, S., & McEwan, P. J. (2013). The heterogeneous impact of conditional cash transfers. Journal of Public Economics, 103, 85–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2013.04.004
Gitto, L., Santoro, D., & Sobbrio, G. (2006). Choice of dialysis treatment and type of medical unit (private vs public): application of a recursive bivariate probit. Health Economics, 15(11), 1251–1256. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1139
Glewwe, P., & Kassouf, A. L. (2012). The impact of the Bolsa Escola/Familia conditional cash transfer program on enrollment, dropout rates and grade promotion in Brazil. Journal of Development Economics, 97(2), 505–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2011.05.008
Greene, W. H. (1998). Gender economics courses in liberal arts colleges: Further results. The Journal of Economic Education, 29(4), 291–300. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220489809595921
Greene, W. H. (2018). Econometric Analysis (8th ed.). Pearson Education, Inc.
Guarcello, L., Mealli, F., & Rosati, F. C. (2010). Household vulnerability and child labor: The effect of shocks, credit rationing, and insurance. Journal of Population Economics, 23(1), 169–198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-008-0233-4
Hasebe, T. (2013). Marginal effects of a bivariate binary choice model. Economics Letters, 121(2), 298–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2013.08.028
Hidayatina, A., & Garces-Ozanne, A. (2019). Can cash transfers mitigate child labour? Evidence from Indonesia’s cash transfer programme for poor students in Java. World Development Perspectives, 15(July), 100129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2019.100129
ILO, & UNICEF. (2021). Child Labour: Global estimates 2020, trends and the road forward. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_norm/@ipec/documents/publication/wcms_797515.pdf
Kemensos. (2021). Pedoman PKH 2021. Direktorat Jenderal Perlindungan dan Jaminan Sosial Kementerian Sosial Republik Indonesia. https://pkh.kemensos.go.id/?pg=dokumen
Kis-Katos, K., & Schulze, G. G. (2011). Child labour in indonesian small industries. Journal of Development Studies, 47(12), 1887–1908. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2011.561327
Latif, E. (2009). The impact of diabetes on employment in Canada. Health Economics, 18(5), 577–589. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1390
MacDonald, Z., & Shields, M. A. (2004). Does problem drinking affect employment? Evidence from England. Health Economics, 13(2), 139–155. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.816
Miller, C., & Tsoka, M. (2012). Cash Transfers and Children’s Education and Labour among Malawi’s Poor. Development Policy Review, 30(4), 499–522. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7679.2012.00586.x
Munawaroh, T. (2013). Pengaruh Kemiskinan Rumahtangga Terhadap Penawaran Tenaga Kerja Anak di Indonesia. Universitas Indonesia.
Pais, P. S. M., Silva, F. de F., & Teixeira, E. C. (2017). The influence of Bolsa Familia conditional cash transfer program on child labor in Brazil. International Journal of Social Economics, 44(2), 206–221. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSE-02-2015-0038
Parker, S. W., & Skoufias, E. (2000). The impact of progresa on work, leisure, and time allocation. In International Food Policy Research Institute (Issue October). http://ebrary.ifpri.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/125439/filename/125440.pdf
Radfar, A., Asgharzadeh, S. A. A., Quesada, F., & Filip, I. (2018). Challenges and Perspectives of Child Labor. Industrial Psychiatry Journal, 27(1), 17–20. https://doi.org/10.4103%2Fipj.ipj_105_14
Rahmaniyah, R. (2015). Dampak Guncangan Rumah Tangga Terhadap Pekerja dan Sekolah Anak. Universitas Indonesia.
Ravallion, M., & Wodon, Q. (2000). Does child labour displace schooling? Evidence on behavioural responses to an enrollment subsidy. The Economic Journal, 110(462), 158–175. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00527
Suryahadi, A., Priyambada, A., & Sumarto, S. (2005). Poverty, School and Work: Children during the Economic Crisis in Indonesia. Development and Change, 36(2), 351–373. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0012-155X.2005.00414.x
UNICEF, UNDP, Prospera, & SMERU. (2021). Analisis Dampak Sosial dan Ekonomi COVID-19 pada Rumah Tangga dan Rekomendasi Kebijakan Strategis untuk Indonesia. In SMERU Research Institute. http://data-unicef.id/monitoring/socioeconomic#0
Wooldridge, J. M. (2010). Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data (2nd ed.). MIT Press.
Yulianti, N. R. (2015). The functioning and effect of a cash transfer program in Indonesia (Issue August) [Erasmus University Rotterdam]. https://thesis.eur.nl/pub/33409/YYulianti_MA_2014_15_ECD_DD.pdf
Alatas, V., Cahyadi, N., Ekasari, E. Y., Harmoun, S., Hidayat, B., Janz, E., Jellema, J., Tuhiman, H., & Wai-Poi, M. (2011). Program Keluarga Harapan: Main Findings from the Impact Evaluation of Indonesia’s Pilot Household Conditional Cash Transfer Program. In World Bank (Issue June).
Amin, S., Quayes, M. S., & Rives, J. M. (2004). Poverty and Other Determinants of Child Labor in Bangladesh. Southern Economic Journal, 70(4), 876–892. https://doi.org/10.2307/4135277
Angrist, J. D. (2001). Estimation of limited dependent variable models with dummy endogenous regressors: Simple strategies for empirical practice. Journal of Business and Economic Statistics, 19(1), 2–28. https://doi.org/10.1198/07350010152472571
Attanasio, O., Fitzsimons, E., Gomez, A., Meghir, C., Mesnard, A., & GutiéRrez, M. I. (2010). Children’s schooling and work in the presence of a conditional cash transfer program in rural Colombia. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 58(2), 181–210. https://doi.org/10.1086/648188
Badan Pusat Statistik. (2020). Berita Resmi Statisik: Keadaan Ketenagakerjaan Indonesia Agustus 2020. https://www.bps.go.id/pressrelease/2020/11/05/1673/-revisi-per-18-02-2021--agustus-2020--tingkat-pengangguran-terbuka--tpt--sebesar-7-07-persen.html
Bakrania, S., Chavez, C., Ipince, A., Rocca, M., Oliver, S., Stansfield, C., & Subrahmanian, R. (2020). Impacts of Pandemics and Epidemics on Child Protection: Lessons learned from a rapid review in the context of COVID-19. Innocenti Working Paper, 2020–05(July 2020). https://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/WP-2020-05-Working-Paper-Impacts-Pandemics-Child-Protection.pdf
Beegle, K., Dehejia, R. H., & Gatti, R. (2006). Child labor and agricultural shocks. Journal of Development Economics, 81(1), 80–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2005.05.003
Christofides, L. N., Stengos, T., & Swidinsky, R. (1997). On the calculation of marginal effects in the bivariate probit model. Economics Letters, 54(3), 203–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-1765(97)00025-6
Dammert, A. C., de Hoop, J., Mvukiyehe, E., & Rosati, F. C. (2018). Effects of public policy on child labor: Current knowledge, gaps, and implications for program design. World Development, 110, 104–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.05.001
de Janvry, A., Finan, F., Sadoulet, E., & Vakis, R. (2006). Can conditional cash transfer programs serve as safety nets in keeping children at school and from working when exposed to shocks? Journal of Development Economics, 79(2), 349–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2006.01.013
De Silva, I., & Sumarto, S. (2015). How do Educational Transfers Affect Child Labour Supply and Expenditures? Evidence from Indonesia of Impact and Flypaper Effects. Oxford Development Studies, 43(4), 483–507. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600818.2015.1032232
Del Carpio, X. V., Loayza, N. V., & Wada, T. (2016). The Impact of Conditional Cash Transfers on the Amount and Type of Child Labor. World Development, 80, 33–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.11.013
Duryea, S., Lam, D., & Levison, D. (2007). Effects of economic shocks on children’s employment and schooling in Brazil. Journal of Development Economics, 84(1), 188–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2006.11.004
Edmonds, E. V., & Schady, N. (2012). Poverty alleviation and child labor. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 4(4), 100–124. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.4.4.100
Edwards, L. N., Hasebe, T., & Sakai, T. (2019). Education and marriage decisions of japanese women and the role of the equal employment opportunity act. Journal of Human Capital, 13(2), 260–292. https://doi.org/10.1086/702924
Galiani, S., & McEwan, P. J. (2013). The heterogeneous impact of conditional cash transfers. Journal of Public Economics, 103, 85–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2013.04.004
Gitto, L., Santoro, D., & Sobbrio, G. (2006). Choice of dialysis treatment and type of medical unit (private vs public): application of a recursive bivariate probit. Health Economics, 15(11), 1251–1256. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1139
Glewwe, P., & Kassouf, A. L. (2012). The impact of the Bolsa Escola/Familia conditional cash transfer program on enrollment, dropout rates and grade promotion in Brazil. Journal of Development Economics, 97(2), 505–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2011.05.008
Greene, W. H. (1998). Gender economics courses in liberal arts colleges: Further results. The Journal of Economic Education, 29(4), 291–300. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220489809595921
Greene, W. H. (2018). Econometric Analysis (8th ed.). Pearson Education, Inc.
Guarcello, L., Mealli, F., & Rosati, F. C. (2010). Household vulnerability and child labor: The effect of shocks, credit rationing, and insurance. Journal of Population Economics, 23(1), 169–198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-008-0233-4
Hasebe, T. (2013). Marginal effects of a bivariate binary choice model. Economics Letters, 121(2), 298–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2013.08.028
Hidayatina, A., & Garces-Ozanne, A. (2019). Can cash transfers mitigate child labour? Evidence from Indonesia’s cash transfer programme for poor students in Java. World Development Perspectives, 15(July), 100129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2019.100129
ILO, & UNICEF. (2021). Child Labour: Global estimates 2020, trends and the road forward. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_norm/@ipec/documents/publication/wcms_797515.pdf
Kemensos. (2021). Pedoman PKH 2021. Direktorat Jenderal Perlindungan dan Jaminan Sosial Kementerian Sosial Republik Indonesia. https://pkh.kemensos.go.id/?pg=dokumen
Kis-Katos, K., & Schulze, G. G. (2011). Child labour in indonesian small industries. Journal of Development Studies, 47(12), 1887–1908. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2011.561327
Latif, E. (2009). The impact of diabetes on employment in Canada. Health Economics, 18(5), 577–589. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1390
MacDonald, Z., & Shields, M. A. (2004). Does problem drinking affect employment? Evidence from England. Health Economics, 13(2), 139–155. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.816
Miller, C., & Tsoka, M. (2012). Cash Transfers and Children’s Education and Labour among Malawi’s Poor. Development Policy Review, 30(4), 499–522. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7679.2012.00586.x
Munawaroh, T. (2013). Pengaruh Kemiskinan Rumahtangga Terhadap Penawaran Tenaga Kerja Anak di Indonesia. Universitas Indonesia.
Pais, P. S. M., Silva, F. de F., & Teixeira, E. C. (2017). The influence of Bolsa Familia conditional cash transfer program on child labor in Brazil. International Journal of Social Economics, 44(2), 206–221. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSE-02-2015-0038
Parker, S. W., & Skoufias, E. (2000). The impact of progresa on work, leisure, and time allocation. In International Food Policy Research Institute (Issue October). http://ebrary.ifpri.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/125439/filename/125440.pdf
Radfar, A., Asgharzadeh, S. A. A., Quesada, F., & Filip, I. (2018). Challenges and Perspectives of Child Labor. Industrial Psychiatry Journal, 27(1), 17–20. https://doi.org/10.4103%2Fipj.ipj_105_14
Rahmaniyah, R. (2015). Dampak Guncangan Rumah Tangga Terhadap Pekerja dan Sekolah Anak. Universitas Indonesia.
Ravallion, M., & Wodon, Q. (2000). Does child labour displace schooling? Evidence on behavioural responses to an enrollment subsidy. The Economic Journal, 110(462), 158–175. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00527
Suryahadi, A., Priyambada, A., & Sumarto, S. (2005). Poverty, School and Work: Children during the Economic Crisis in Indonesia. Development and Change, 36(2), 351–373. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0012-155X.2005.00414.x
UNICEF, UNDP, Prospera, & SMERU. (2021). Analisis Dampak Sosial dan Ekonomi COVID-19 pada Rumah Tangga dan Rekomendasi Kebijakan Strategis untuk Indonesia. In SMERU Research Institute. http://data-unicef.id/monitoring/socioeconomic#0
Wooldridge, J. M. (2010). Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data (2nd ed.). MIT Press.
Yulianti, N. R. (2015). The functioning and effect of a cash transfer program in Indonesia (Issue August) [Erasmus University Rotterdam]. https://thesis.eur.nl/pub/33409/YYulianti_MA_2014_15_ECD_DD.pdf